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The upper respiratory tract is composed of: the nose + pharynx + larynx
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The lower respiratory tract goes from trachea to alveolus
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The right lung is made up of 3 lobes and the left one 2 lobes
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Muscles of expiration are internal intercostals + diaphragm + accessory muscles
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Quiet breathing is a passive process
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Why do we use spirometry? To diagnose an illness or to determine progress in a treatment
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What volume can NOT be determined with spirometry ? residual volume
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What volumes can be determined by spirometry ?
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Gas exchange occurs in the alveoli
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Surfactant fluid is synthesized by pneumocytes II
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Surfactant fluid helps to reduce surface tension
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Capacity of gas exchange is increased by the rich capillary network
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Muscles of inspiration are external intercostals + diaphragm + accessory muscles
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What is tidal volume? volume of air moved during quiet breathing
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Lung volumes are influenced by height, location, and lifestyle
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How does exercise affect ventilation?
- it increases the ventilation rate due to the greater frequency of breaths
- it increases the tidal volume due to the increase of the depth of breathing
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What is VO2max? the maximum speed at which oxygen can be absorbed and delivered to body tissues
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Explain the concepts of oxygen deficit and oxygen debt
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What is the maximum volume inhaled called? inspiratory reserve volume
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What is the maximum volume exhaled called? expiratory reserve volume
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The pontine respiratory group is made of the pneumotaxic center and the apneustic center
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How does the breathing center work?
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What is the difference between ventilation and perfusion ?
- Ventilation is the air that reaches the alveoli
- Perfusion is the flow of blood into the alveoli
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Ventilation helps to maintain a concentration gradient of oxygen
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O2 levels are high in the alveoli and diffuse into the bloodstream
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CO2 levels are low in the alveoli and diffuse from the bloodstream
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Spirometry measures the amount and rate of air that a person breathes
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How is CO2 transported?
- bound to Hb and therefore forms HbCO2
- dissolved in water
- diffuses in the red blood cell and converted into carbonic acid → 75% of it
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Hb has a lower affinity with oxygen than HbO8
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Explain the concept of cooperative binding
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How is blood pH regulated?
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Amino-acids are zwitterions which means that that they can either be positively or negatively charged
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Lactic acid causes muscle ache, rapid breathing, and stomach pain
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What is the difference between hemoglobin and myoglobin?
- Number of chains
- Number of oxygen bound
- Capacity to do cooperative binding
- Oxygen partial pressure diagram
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The respiration center is located inside the medulla oblongata
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Explain the Bohr effect
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Hemoglobin can bind 4 oxygens
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The affinity of hemoglobin with oxygen depends on how saturated it is (number of oxygen bound)
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Central chemoreceptors are located in the medulla and peripheral chemoreceptors are located inside the carotid and aortic arch
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The chemoreceptors are sensitive to PaCO2 and blood pH
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The neurons in the respiratory center are called dorsal, ventral, and pontine respiratory group
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Mb has a higher affinity for oxygen than adult Hb and consequently becomes saturated at lower oxygen levels
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The Bohr shift explains the increased release of oxygen by Hb
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Explain how we go from CO2 in the lungs to bicarbonate and vice versa
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Partial pressure occurs when there is more than one gas in one structure
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Total pressure is equal to the sum of all the partial pressures
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Why do athletes train in high altitudes?
- production of red blood cells increases to make up for the lack of oxygen
- they have more Hb with a higher affinity for oxygen
- vital capacity is raised
- muscles produce more myoglobin
- kidneys produce alkaline urine to remove the excess bicarbonates: this acts as a buffer for the blood pH
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Myoglobin is found in skeletal muscles tissues
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Myoglobin can bind 1 oxygen